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338 Caver Comment Anti designbyConstantineNivola 338 "Revolution"inFrance,by -Capitalist GeloandAndrea 3 4 1 ConscientiousObjectionisBankrupt,by DonEltonSmith 3 4 5 Commonnonsense,byNiccoloTucci 3 4 6 MaidenFlight,byRalphManheim 3 4 7 PicketingandtheLaw,byWiliamPetersen 3 5 0 PopularCulture NotesonMassCulture,byEuropean 3 5 3 Eisenstein's"Ivan,"byD.M. 3 56 FreeandEqual 3 5 7 ScientificMethod elPoliticalAction,by JamesBlish 3 5 3 NewRoads:DiscussionbyMarshalHodgson. . 359 Boks 361 SixthReportonPackages 3 6 2 TheInteligenceOfice 3 6 4 Politicking 367 C01118111elite TheTruth I t istimethatsomeonestatedthetruth AboutU.N. abouttheUnitedNations,nowgetting underwayagainnotfarfromhere.The liberalweekliesconsecratespecialissuestothis"last,besthope" ofthedemocraticpeacelovingpeoplesoftheworld;thedaily pressgivesuscolumnsofeyewitnessreportsonthesmile(or wasitasmirk?)observedonthefaceofMolotovatacertain pointinarecentdebate;thePresidentoftheUnitedStates "WARNSUNDELEGATESWARFEAREXAGGER- ATED";theCommiteeforNon-ViolentRevolutionpicketsa U.N.luncheonwithplacardsdenouncingitasacoverforim- perialistwar. Althesereactionsappeartomeexcessive.TheU.N.isnot aparliamentofpeacelovingpeoples;it isnotanarenaof history-in-the-making;itisnotevenwhattheCNVRpickets thinkit is:awayoflullingthemaseswithtalkofpeace whilewarispreparedbehindthescenes.It is,quitesimply, abBo e re fo . redenouncingthisasthejudgmentofanintellectual snob,thereadershouldconsultthenewspaperreportsofthe reactionofthepeopleofNewYorkthemasses,ifyou please—tothe96-carcavalcadewhichboretheU.N.dele- gatesfromtheBaterytoCityHal fortheoficialwelcoming ceremony.Thepeopleinthestreetswere"politebutnotably unenthusiastic";notornpaperortickertapefluttereddown fromtheWallStreetskyscrapers;thecrowdswere"insignifi- cant"comparedtothosewhichhadturnedouttowelcome NimitzandEisenhower.Soapathetic,indeed,wasthepublic responsethatthepresidentofU.N., in hisspeechatCity Hal,feltobligedtonotethatthereception"wasnotquite asenthusiasticaswecouldhavewishedfor."Everybody cheeredup,however,afterthenextevent:aluncheoninthe grandbalroomoftheWaldorf-Astoria,wherea"distinBtedilendinfharceichtoumuchmorecordialatmosphere." polities Allofwhichgoestoshow,ashasbeenoftenobservedinthese pages,howmuchmoreinteligentpeoplewhocannotaffordto pay$12aplateforluncharethanthosewhocan.Alsohow muchsmarter,insomeways,theaveragecitizen(or, ifyou prefer,"themasses")isthanmostofusintellectuals,whoget soaccustomedtoreactingtoabstractconceptswhichis whattheU.N.isthatweforgettoaskwhetherthereis anythingmuchunderneath. ThereasontheU.N.isboringisthatitisanextremeex- ampleofthekindofabstractiontheproletarianrevolution isanotherwhichmeansnothingonewayoranothertoany specifichumanbeing.Asthougha"nation"(i.e.,140Americans,includingmyself)werenotmeaninglessenough,now wehavealotofindividuals"representing"thegovernments which"represent"thenations.Thedelegatestothisfiction supermi posedontwootherfictionsappeartobeasboredand impotentandbaffledastherestofusare.TheU.N.shows whyitisdifficultforaradicaltodaytoplacehimselfinrelationtointernationalafairs,ortoanykindofthoughtorac- tionwhichgoesbeyondhisownpersonalexperience,whether as:anintelectuallivinginNewYorkCityoramemberofa cooperativegroupfarmingsomeacresinGeorgia.Speakingas theformer, IcannotseethattheU.N.iseitherahopeora menace;justabore. TheFrench Whilethepressdevoteditsfrontpages 5-Year Plan toU.N.trivia,itdiditsusualjobofburyingsignificantnewsinthebackpages. Tworeportsarespecialyinterestinginthelightofthe analysis,elsewhereinthisissue,oftheFrenchnationalization proAgPra amris . dispatchinthe N. Y. Times ofOct.16: "Whatisprobablythemostcomprehensiveanddetailedplan everputtogethertoguideanon-totalitarianeconomyisnear- ingcompletionintheGovernment'sFrenchGovernment's planningcommission.Ultimatelytoefecttheutilizationof 18to20percentofthenationalincome,theplanknown astheMonnetPlanafterJeanMonnet,chairmanofthecom- mission—wilsetspecificobjectivesforallofFrance'smajor industriesandforexportandimporttradeoverfiveyears. [Whydoeconomicplannersalwaysthinkintermsofjustfive years?Whynotfourorsixever?Isitthat,forculturaland psychologicalreasons,weseeSasthefirstmajorstoppingplaceafter1?Oristhereintherealeconomicworldafive-year rhythm?—n.m.]Thekeyto¿heprogramisaplanforfive basicindustries:steel,transport,coal,cementandelectricity. "TheFrenchpeoplewillbeconfrontedwiththeunpleasant choiceofgivinguptheirtraditionalatitudetowardmodern polities VOLUME3,No.10(WholeNo.33)NOVEMBER,1946 Editor:DwightMacdonald BusinessManagers:BerthaGruner,NancyMacdonald POLITICSispublishedmonthlyat45AstorPlace, NewYork3,N. Y., byPoliticsPublishingCo.Telephone:GRamercy3-1512. Subscription$3.50foroneyear,$6fortwoyears.Add 30eayearforCanada,50cayearforallotherforeign countries.Singlecopy:35e.Mostbackissuesarestill avCai o lapby lerig . htNovember,1946,byPoliticsPublishingCo. Enteredassecond-classmatterMarch16,1944,atthe postoficeatNewYork,undertheActofMarch3,1879. 71
NOVEMBER,1946 339 large-scaleproductionortheirtraditionalstandardofcom- fort.Thelesson,M.Monnetsays,mustbedrivenhomethat Francecannotafordnottomakethetremendousefortcaled forbythenewplan." Thislast,asGeloandAndreashow,isthereverseofthe truth:plannedeconomy,asunderstoodhere,meanslarge-scale production and alowstandardofliving.Andinfactthere- portcontinues:"OnejobisconvincingtheFrenchpeoplethat thedriveformodernizationofantiquatedplantsmustcome beforereconstructioninastrictsense. . .Thereisnotimeto rebuildhomesbecausenewfactoriesmustcomefirst." TheRuhr Is HadsomeonetoldLeninandTrotsky in Socialized 1923,whentheywerestrivingtobring offaGermanrevolution,thattwodecades laterthegreatestindustrialcomplexinEurope--theRuhrRhinecoal,steel,chemicalandmachineryindustrieswould be(a)socialized,(b)bytheBritishLaborParty,without either(c)worldcapitalismshowingmuchinterestonewayor theother,or(d)thecauseofcommunismbeingadvancedperceptibly—Isayifsomeonehadtoldthemthat,thoseMarxist politicianswouldhavebeen,putingitmildly,incredulous.Yet althesethingshavecomeabout.InhisreporttoCommonson Oct.23,ForeignMinisterBevinannouncedthatbasicindustriesintheBritishzonewouldnotbereturnedtotheirformer owners."Asaninterimmeasure,wehavetakenoverpossessionandcontrolofthecoalandsteelindustriesandhave vestedtheminthecommander-in-chief.Similarstepswill shortlybetakeninthecaseofheavychemicalandmanufac- turingindustries.Ourintentionisthattheseindustriesshall beownedandcontrolledbythepublic. . .Weshalsupportall Germanplansforsocializationofbasicindustries." Thisisperhapsthemostimportantforeign-policydecision bytheLaborGovernmentsincetherelaxationoftheBritish griponIndia. ItshowshowthoroughlytheNazis—andthe wardestroyedthebasisofcapitalistclass-ruleinGermany; itraisesthequestionofwhetherbasicindustriesintheAmer- icanzonewillnowalsobesocialised,andifsowhataboutour worldcrusadefor"freeenterprise,"andifnot,howcanthe twozonesbeeconomicalyintegratedaccordingtoByrnes' proposaloflastsummer?Aboveall,whatistherelationof thissteptothecauseofsocialism?Thatpublicownershipis preferabletoareturnoftheruleofGermanbig-businesssems obvious.YetiscolectivizationimposedbytheconquerorwithoutanyreferencetotheaspirationsoftheGermanpeople— nomassexpressionevenexistsoftheseanyway—ofbasic politicalsignificance?Mayitnotbeusedaseasilymoreso, indeedto laythefoundationforGermanwarproduction underBritishtutelageasforabravenewworldoffreedom andHseoreciawlisemh?avethemostgiganticeconomicchangepossible inEuropeandyetitmakeslittlestir(the N.Y.Times ac- tualyfailedeventoreportthispartofBevin'sspeech;myinformationisdrawnfrom P.M.) anditspoliticalimportis ambiguous.The"point"inpoliticshasshiftedfarawayfrom theMarxian"economicbase." Plurentberg ThedefinitivejudgmentontheNuremberg trialistobefoundintheOctober7issueof Baron's, afinancialweekly:"thediference betweenjusticeandvengeanceisthattheformerapplies equalytoall."Anenormousamounthasbeenwritenproand conthejudicialvalidityofthetrial.But Barron's semstohave cuttotheheartofthe•materas,incidentaly,didGeorg Manninhis"MoralityatNuremberg"inourJanuaryissue. Ifaggressivewarfareisacrime,thenmayweexpect-aLenin- gradTrialinwhichtheleadersofRussia'satackonFinland BibliotecaGinoBianco in1939-1940willbedulytriedandexecuted?*If"crimes againsthumanity"aretobepunished,whenmaywelook forwardtothehangingofthosewhokilledmilionsofKulaks, saboteurs,andother"enemiesofsociety"in their camps;orto theexecutionofthosewhoputtodeathwithouttrialor ceremonysomehundredthousandmen,womenandchildren ofHiroshimaandNagasaki?"Thediferencebetweenjustice andvengeanceisthattheformerappliesequalytoall." Murder, I t isalittleironicalthatsomuchprotest Compounded hasarisenaboutthemoralbasisofthe NurembergTrialandsolittle—infact, Ihaveseennone-aboutthemoralityofcertainotherexecutionswehavebeencaryingoutinGermany.Ironicalbecause thedefendantsatNuremberghadallofthemcommitedor connivedatunthinkableatrocities,whilethedefendantsin theseothertrialswere,inmyopinion,guiltyofnocrimeatal. IrefertotheexecutionsbytheU.S.Armyofseveralscore Germancivilianswhowerefoundbyourcourtsmartialto havetakenpartinthemobkilingsofAmericanfliersforced downinGermany.Lynchingisuglyanywhere,andasapacifistIopposethekilingofanyone.Butwasitnotperfectly naturaland,intermsofthecommonlyacceptedmorality(I asumetheU.S.Armyisnotpacifistinphilosophy),entirely justifiedforGermancivilianstokilltheflierswhohadkiledso manyofthem?Whatshouldanairmanexpectwhohasbeen droppingblockbustersonhelplesscivilians,ifheisunlucky enoughtofallintothehandsofhisvictims?Hegave them nochancetosurender.Whyshouldtheyaccept his surender? Itwouldbeunfortunate,ofcourse,ifciviliansgottheidea thattheycouldwithimpunitystrikebackatthetechnicians whomassacrethemwithscientificdevicesfromtwomilesin theair. It isunderstandablewhytheArmywantsto"make someexamples."Butthejusticeisalonthesideofthehanged, notthehangmen. TheComedy Thecomedyofwageandpricecontrols IsEnded i s ended.TheAFLseamen,backedby theiremployers,mountedastrikewhich brokewagecontrolswideopenand,afewweekslater,resulted inthedisintegrationoftheWageStabilizationBoard.(Curi- ously,theBoardwastorpedoedbythewithdrawalof its employer members.Ihaveseennoexplanationofwhythe labormembersstoodbytheBoardwhiletheemployersdesertedit.Theepisodesemstoshowboththeincompetenceof laborleadershipandthehostilityofU.S.business,regardless ofitsimmediateeconomicinterests,towardsStatecapitalism.) AndnowOPAhasbeenshatteredbyanotherstrike,ofthe meatindustry.Asinthecaseofthemaritimestrike,Truman hadtwosensiblealternatives:eithertogiveinatonce,orelse tobreakthestrike,whichinthiscasewouldhavemeantusing hiswartimepowerswhichare,significantly,stil inforce, *Theconceptof"aggressivewarfare"cannotwithstandserioushistorical analysis—atleastnotinthe20thcentury,inwhichthepreparingand wagingofwarhasbecomethechiefbusinessofallfirst-classpowers. I recaltheshockofenlightenmentwhenI firstreadSidneyFay'sgreattwovolumework, TheOriginsoftheWorld War.Usingthethen-available secretarchivesofallthewarringgovernments—manyofthemmadepublic bytheBolsheviks—Fayshowedwithtediousandfascinatingscholarship thatresponsibilityfortheoutbreikOfhostilitiesin1914layequalybetweenfourpowers,two"bad"ones(AustriaandGermany),andtwo "good"ones(FranceandRussia).Butthosewereinnocentdays,when evenProgressiveeditorsreasonedandweighedevidenceinarrivingat a judgmentonsuchmatters.ProfessorFayoftrarvardisnowdead;his bookcertainlyis;'thereisanintolerablyolefishionedfliiortothe-detach- mentwithwhichheviewedhistory;amiColonel-GeneralZhdane-orcesuldtell us,or,forthatmatter,AssociateJusticeJackson,oftheU.-S.Suprenie Court.
340 sincethewarisnotoficiallyendedtorequisitionanddistri- butethemeat.Ofcourse,hedidneither,and,justasinthe maritimestrike,wasforcedtoreversehispolicyafewdays afterhavingafirmeditinthestrongestterms.Thusthemaximumdamagewasdone:thepublicgotneithersteaksnorcon- trolledprices,suferingallthedisadvantagesofbothafree andacontroledeconomy,withouteithertheautomaticad- justmentsoftheoneortheplanningoftheother. A Poundof T h e OPApsychologywas Stabilization,Please! wonderfullyexpressedby FederalPriceAdministrator PaulPorter,who,attheheightofthemeatfamine,told thepublicthat"obtainingsteaksnextweekortheweek thereafterwaslessimportantthanachievingstabilization fortheentireeconomy."Thecuriouslymetaphysicalcharacter ofthebureaucraticmentalityappearshere:insteadof a policy(stabilization)beingconceivedofasinstrumentalto materialisticgains(steaks),thelatteraresacrificedtothe former.Letdirectivesbecariedout,thoughtheheavensfall! Aweeklater,HaroldN.Cohen,OPAregionalenforcement executivefortheNewYorkarea,puthischief'sprincipleinto practice.Alocalsteelmanufacturerwiththatgumptionand ingenuitywhichusedtobeoneofthemostappealingtraitsof theAmericancharacterhadboughtaherdofsteersdirect fromaTexasranch.Heproposedtoslaughtertheseinhis ownplantandtomakeafreegiftofthemeattohisemployees.ButMr.Cohenforbadethefeastas"creatingapattern thatwoulddestroythehistoricandnormaldistributionof meat."Thatthehistoricandnormaldistributionofmeator anydistributionatall,forthatmaterhadbeenendedsome timeearlierwasafact-of-lifewithoutstandinginbureaucratic metaphysics."Theidea,accordingtoMr.Cohen,whotalked withofficialsinWashingtonbeforemakinghisstatement,is thatthesmallamountofmeatavailablecanbespreadaround mostequitablyifdistributionisconfinedtotraditionaltrade channels."Anothermetaphysicalyimproperfact-of-lifewas thatthetraditionaltradechannelswereatthemomentrefus- ingtodistributeanymeatatallinordertodestroytheOPA regulationswhichMessrs.PorterandCohenwereenforcing. Insomeways,SenatorTaftisagreatthinker. WellDone, In"TheStoryofCyprus"(August),Ipaid Thouetc. a tributetotheliblabstatesman,Arthur Creech-Jones,whoevolvedinlessthana yearfromanimpassionedtribuneoftheCypriotsintoan apologistfortheirBritishrulers;thediferencebeing,of course,thatin1945hewasinoppositionandin1946in power,asUnder-SecretaryofColoniesintheLaborgovern- ment.Mr.Creech-Jones'admirerswillbepleasedtoknowthat hisloyalservicewasrewarded,inlastmonth'scabinetreorgan- ization,withadvancementtopostofSecretaryofStatefor theColonies.Weldone,thougoodandfaithfulservant! NordidMr.Creech-Jonesforgethisoldfriendsafterhis promotion.Hehasannouncedthat"constitutionalreforms aimedatestablishingamoreliberalandprogressiveregimein theinternalaffairsofCyprusareunderconsideration." Specificaly,heproposestheeventualre-establishmentofa centrallegislature;i.e.,therestorationoftheimpotent,win- dow-dressingLegislativeCouncilwhichGladstonegavethe Cypriotsin1882andwhichwasabolishedafterthe1931re- bellion.Iftheyhumpthemselves,theLaboritesmaybeableto bringthemarchofprogressinCyprusuptothepointit hadreachedin1882. AReutersdispatchfromNicosiadatedOctober23suggests thattheseGreekslookwithafishyeyeontheBritishbearing gifts:"TheBritishplanwasrejected`categoricalyandwith BibliotecaGinoBianco polities indignation'tonightbytheEthnarchic(ChurchofCyprus) Council.Itopposed'anysolutionoftheCyprusquestionnot grantingnationallibertybyunionwithGreece,whichconsti- tutesouronlynationalclaimandaspiration'." TheBomb— Theprogressives'favoriteapologyfor Afterthoughts theatomicbombingofHiroshimaand Nagasakiwasthatitshortenedthewar andthussavedlives.Thiskindofreasoning,ofcourse,can beusedtojustifyalmostanyatrocity.Butitisbeginningto appear,inaddition,thatJapanwasbeaten before theatomic bombings,andthatherrulersknewthisandwerefranticaly tryingtomakepeace.TworecentstatementsbyhighU.S. militaryfiguresareinterestinginthisconnection: AdmiralHalsey,notpreciselyahumanitarian,said:"The firstatomicbombwasanunnecessaryexperiment.Itwasa mistakeevertodropit.Whydiscloseaweaponlikethattothe worldwhenitwasn'tnecessary?Thescientistshadthistoy andtheywantedtotryitout,sotheydroppedit. Itkileda lotofJaps,buttheJapshadputoutpeacefeelersthrough Russialongbefore."(APdispatch,Sept.9) AndAdmiralBlandy,whowasinchargeoftheBikinitests, saidthata"virilenation"wouldendurealotofatomicbombingevenafteritsmaincitiesweredestroyed."Icannotbe- lievethat itwouldsurrenderwhileitsfightingforceswere intactitsarmies,fleets,itsbombs,itslaunchingplatforms. Japanlosthermeansofresistancebeforetheatomicbomb wasdropped." THEHEAVYTHINKERSONGOERING'SSUICIDE GeneralH.H.Arnold:"Iexpectedsomethinglikethattohappen.The averageGermandoesnotwanttobehung." TheeditorsofPM:"WhenweheardofGoering'ssuicide,therewas acertaintendernessinallourheartsforCol.C.B.Andrus.Wesensed whathemustbefeelingovertheprematuredeathofhismaincharge." TheNuremburgNestor:"WASHINGTON,Oct.16—Byhissuicide, HermannGoeringlostanychancetobecomeaGermanmartyr,Justice RobertH.Jackson,whoprosecutedtheNo.2NaziinNuremburg,said today.Goering,throughhisself-inflicteddeathbypoisoninsteadofdying courageouslyonthegalows,dispeledthe'mythofNazibraveryand stoicismanddeepconviction',theSupremeCourtJusticeadded.(Add newsreport,samepaper:,samedate:"FirstsoundingsofGermanpublic opinionshowedthatGoering'sjudgementinchoosingsuchapsychological momentforsuicide. . .washavingtheefecthemightwellhavedesired. Allotheraspectsofthetrialandexecutionswerecompletelyovershadowed asthousandsofGermanschuckledoverthetrickhehadplayedonthe occupyingpowers,andoncemorethoughtofhimasahero.Goering's dramaticgestureindeathappearedtohavehelpedtheseGermansforget hiscrimes.") HUMANITARIANISMONTHEBORDER BritishforceshavedestroyednearlyadozenvillagesintheNorthwestern FrontierProvinceofIndiaaspunishmentfortherecentabductionby tribesmenofaBritishpoliticalagent. . .Theagentwasreleased,butthe British,whosaidcertainunspecifieddemandshadnotbeenmet,sentplanes andartillerytoattackthevilages. TheintentoftheBritish,itwassaid,wastodestroythevilagesofthe tribesmen—whosebuildingmaterialsareextremelyscarce—"tokeepthem busyandoutofmischiefforthenextfewmonths."(InLondon,theIndia Officesaid"thisisthemosthumanewayofteachingthem,sinceanexpeditionwouldmeanunnecessarylossof life.")Noticeisgivenbeforean atack,it issaid,buttwoorthreedeathshavebeenreportedbecauseof "themistakeofapilotwhobombedthewrongvilage."Compensationhas beenpaidandapologieshavebeenmadeforthedeaths,itwasexplained. —N.Y.HeraldTribune,Sept.12. LOCAL.BOYMAKESGOOD OnJuly24,SirWalterCitrine,K.B.E.,madehislastofficialappearance atmeetingsoftheGeneralCounciloftheTradesUnionCongress. . . SirWalter(whoonthefolowingdaytookhisseatintheHouseof PeersasBaronCitrineofWembley)hadbeenGeneralSecretaryofthe T.U.C.since1926. —proudreportinLabour,organoftheT.U.C.,forAugust.
NOVEMBER,1946 341 Anti-Capitalist"Revolution" in France byGeloandAndrea THROUGHOUTEurope,wartimePlannedEconomyis I changingintopostwarPlannedEconomy.Thetrendis pronouncedinEngland,inFrance,inPoland,Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia,andHungary.ThenewPlannedEconomiesnow comnigintobeingaredistinguishedfromtheirwartimepred- ecesorsbythefactthatnationalizationalmostalwaysaccompaneidbyexpropriationofprivatecapitalplaysamajor rolTeh. esenationalizationsare,ofcourse,nottheresultofrevolutionarymasactionaimingatradicalsocialchange.Onthe otherhand,neitheraretheymeretechnicalmeasuresinherent inanyStatisteconomiccontrols,comparabletosuchmeasures asthecreationofcentralplanningboards.Thewareconomies ofboththeNazisandthedemocratic-capitalistpowershave shownthattheStatecaneficientlydirecttheeconomywithoutresortingtonationalizations. Butwhythenarenationalizationsapartofthepost-war ControledEconomy?And,sincetheyareneithermeansof socialliberationnormeasureswhichwouldleaveintactthe fundamentalstructureofcapitalistsociety,whatistheirsig- nificWanecseh?allimitourselvestothestudyofFrance,thecountry inwhichwelive.OnlyaftersimilarstudiesonotherEuropean countrieshavebeenundertakenwillitbepossibletoascertain whetherourconclusionsaregeneralyvalid. THESTRUGGLEFORPOWER ThedominantpoliticalforcesinFrance—DeGauleandthe MRP,theCommunists,andtheSocialistsfollowpolicies whichmustleadtofailureiftheyarenotbackedbypowerful industrialandmilitaryforces.Noneofthesepartiesintends tostepoutofthegeneralframeworkofaworlddominated bynationalrivalries.Thereforetheymustorientallenergies towardthebuildingofanationalpower-reserveandtothis effecttheymustworktowardaPlannedEconomyintune withthisgoal.Eachoneofthem,however,wishesthatthe powerreservethuscreatedbeputattheserviceofitspar- ticularinterests.FortheGauliststhismeansthatFrance shouldbecomeoneoftheBigPowers;fortheCommunists, thatFrancebeabridgeheadofRussiainWesternEurope;for theSocialists,thattheindependenceofFrancefromtheBig Powersbemaintainedwithintheframeworkofanaliance withothernations(EuropeanFederation). ThehistoryoftheThirdRepublichastaughttheCommunistandSocialistleadersthatagovernmentoftheLeft,re- sultingfromanelectoralvictory,iscondemnedtopowerlessnesaslongastherealleversofpowerintheState--and,a fortiori, intheeconomyremaininthehandsoftherepresentativesofclassesthatwillalwaysremaintheirireconcilable enemeis.Buttheconclusionthattheoldapparatusofdominationanditssocialbasismustbeabolishedbyrevolutionary masaction,canneverbedrawnbytheCPortheSP.While itistruethatavictoriousrevolutionarymassactionwould radicalyeliminatetheruleoftheformerlydominatingclasses, itisequalytruethatitwouldpreventforalongtime,ifnot hilegiétrableilS t e e l ' Y orientedtowardpower policies.Suchactionwouldalsosweepawaythose"working- classorganizations"whoseexistenceisincompatiblewiththe spontaneityofthemasses.Thereforethesedegeneratedwork- ing-classpartiescannotandwillnottaketherevolutionary roadtopowerandareforced,despitetheteachingsofhistory, tochoosetheparliamentaryroad.Theytrytoclimbtopower throughelectoralvictoriesandparliamentarymajorities,but hopeatthesametimetoconquer,alsobyparliamentarymeans, therealcommandingheightsoftheStateandoftheeconomy. Suchtaskwouldbeimpossibleifthebourgeoisiewerestill strong,beitonlyasstrongasitwasin1936.Evenatthat time,theleversofpowercouldhavebeenwrestedfromitby revolutionaryanddirectmassaction.ButtheFrenchbour- geoisietodayisonlyashadowofitsformerself;itnolonger hasthepowertoimposeuponsocietyitswayofthinkingand acting.Therootofthisimpotenceliesinitsinabilitytoinsure anylongerbyitsownforcesthefunctioningoftheeconomy. Itsgeneralweaknessisemphasizedbythefactthataconsiderable.partofthebourgeoisieand.ofthehighstatebureaucracy iscompromisedbytheVichyadventureandthatthebourgeoispoliticalpartieswereincompletedecompositionimme- diatelyaftertheliberation. UnderthesecircumstancestheGaulistsweremuchbeter placedtoleadthefightagainsttheworking-classparties,becausetheyweretheincarnationofnationalismandtheprota- gonistsofasocietyinwhichcapitalwouldnolongerusethe Stateforitsownends,butwheretheState,inthenameofthe generalinterest,"woulddominatethewholeofsociety.But theMRPcannotanddoesnotwishtouseviolence.Itisnot abletobecauseitistooweak,anddoesnotwanttobecauseit wsihestoinsuresocialpeaceintheinterestofarapiddevelop- mentofthepower-politicalpotential.TheGaulistshopethat aseriesofcircumstancestherivalriesbetweentheSPand theCP;theCPpolicywhichdoesnotwanttocompromise thebuildingofapowerpotentialbysocialupheaval;thedeci- sionoftheAnglo-Saxonpowersnottotoleratea"bolshevik" France--willpreventthetotalandirevocablecomingto poweroftheworking-classpartiesandespecialyoftheCP. Theyhopethatthesepartieswillbeweakenedeventuallyand willosetheirsocialbasisbecausetheirpoliciescanonlymean newsacrificesforthemases.ForalthesereasonstheGaulists havebeenledtoconductthestruggleagainsttheworkingclasspartiesontheparliamentaryplaneandhavebeenforced toadoptpoliciesinvolvingconcessionsontheirpart. THE"LEFT"BIDSFORPOWER Giventheseconditions,itisnotimpossiblethattheworking-classpartieswillmoveintocontroloftheeconomyandof thenewStateapparatus.(Asanindicationofthegrowthof theStateapparatusletusjustquotethefiguresfortheMinis- tryoftheInterioralone:thisministrynowemploys96,000 civilservantsasagainst14,160in1938).Thelegalwayto powerismarkedbystructuralreformsthroughparliamentary t t *WerefertotheSPandtheCPas"working-classorganizations"al- thoughtheyrealyarenosuchthing.Butthereisnootherterminologyin commonuse.
342 politics majority.ApartfromagradualtransformationoftheState apparatusitselfwhichdoesnotconcernushere,nationalizationsaretheessentialinstrumentstobeutilized. Theexpropriationofbanksandkeyindustrieswouldde- privethebourgeoisieofpositionswhich,thoughtheynolonger alowittodominatetheState,stilenableittosabotageagov- ernmentofwhichitdoesnotapproveandtosupportthe domesticandforeignenemiesoftheworking-classparties. Thereforenationalizations,especiallyfortheCP,shouldmake itpossiblethatthecoupd'état,i.e.,theculminationofthe legalroadtopower,willnotunleashprofoundsocialupheaval andcivilwarbutwillratherbetheliquidationofafeeble adversarywhosebasealreadyissapped.Inotherwords,the nationalizationsshouldalowthecoupd'étattotakeplace underconditionssimilartothoseinGermanywhen.theNazis tookpowerin1933.(NoteinpassingthatCommunistpoli- ciesrequirethecoupd'étatnottotakeplacebeforethepower ofFranceisstrongenoughtoalowadefenseagainstAnglo- Saxonintervention.) Itisevidentthatthenationalizationscanplaytherole asignedtothembytheworking-classpartiesonlyif (1)they comprisethebankingsystemandkeyindustriesand(2) thedecisivepositionsfalltothesepartiesandnottotheirenemeis—inshort,onlyifthenationalizationscorespondtothe definitiongivenintheCPandSPjointmanifestoofMay2, 1945:(1)removaloftheenterprisefromownershipbyprivate capital(withcompensationexceptfortraitors);(2)removal ofprivatecapitalfrommanagerialposts;(3)participation ofworkers'delegatesi.e.,menfromtheCPandSPunions, especialytheformerinmanagement. DeGauleandtheMRP,thoughtheyhaveacceptednation- alizationforthereasonsexplainedabove,trytoprotectbig busniessinterestsasmuchaspossibleandtoputbusinessmen intothekeyposts.Theyaimtocreateexecutiveorgansfor thedefenseof"nationalgrandeur"ratherthanofcapitalism. Thebigfight,therefore,hasbeenovertherelativesizeofthe scopeofnationalizationandtheformofadministration;the rateofcompensationhasbeenasecondaryissue. NATIONALIZATIONTODATE Sinceallthenationalizationssofarhavebeentheresultof parliamentarymajoritydecisions,theyarecompromiseswhich showthechangingpower-balancebetweenthethreegreat parties. TheCP-SPprogramcaledforthenationalizationofthe banks,theinsurancecompanies,keyindustries,andpartof thecommunicationssystem.Uptonowthefolowinghave beennationalizedinadditiontocertainautomobileandaircraftfactories:thecoalminesintheNorthernDepartments andthePasdeCalais,byadecreeofDecember13,1944, promulgatedbytheFirstProvisionalGovernment(underthe PresidencyanduncontestedauthorityofGeneraldeGaulle); theBanquedeFranceandthefourlargebanksofdeposit,by thelawofDecember2,1945oftheFirstParliamentaryGovernmentoftheFourthRepublic(underthePresidencyofde Gaulebutinwhichhisinfluencewassmaler);andfinaly gasandelectricity,insurancecompaniesandallcoalmines (undertheGouingovernmentinwhichtheworking-class partiesenjoyedpredominanceforthefirsttime). Onecangetapictureoftheworking-classparties'idea ofnationalizationifoneconsidersthemeasurestakenduring BibliotecaGinoBianco thefirstdaysaftertheliberationinregionsthatwereasyet withoutcontactwiththecentralgovernment.Thesemeasures concernedaconsiderablenumberofsmalandmedium-size enterprisesaswelassomelargeones,amongthemtheBerliet automobilefactoryinLyonwhichemploys5000workers.In althesecases,thereasonadvancedfortheeliminationofthe capitalistownersortheirrepresentativeswas:collaboration withtheenemy.Theowners,eitherinflightorarested,were notreplacedbyotherrepresentativesofprivatecapitalnorby highcivilservants,butbynewmenwhohadcomeupinthe ResistanceandowedtheirascendancetotheCPortothe unionbureaucracywhichalmostinalcaseswasmadeupfrom theranksoftheCP.Thenewadministrationwasorganizedin formsunknownundercapitalism.Thereorganizationofthe enterprisewasdecidedatnegotiationsbetween,ontheone hand,working-classorganizations(which,duringthatperiod, practicalymeanttheCPsincetheSPhadonlylittleim- portance)and,ontheother,representativesofdeGaule,i.e., ofthestilldisorganizedStateoftheFourthRepublic.The Communistshadadistinctadvantageduringthesenegotiationsandthefactoriesfellintotheirhandsthroughtheinter- mediaryoftheCommunist-dominatedunions,andthisalthoughtheuniondelegateshadonlyaconsultativevoiceinthe boardofmanagers. ThesituationwasquitediferentinplaceswheretheCom- munistshadtodealwithanalreadyconsolidatedstateapparatusandwheretherelationsofpowerwerefavorabletothe Gaulists.Thiswasthecase,e.g.,forthelargestFrenchautomobilefactory,theRenaultworksinParis(35,000workers beforethewar,25,000workersnow).Althoughuniondelegatesaremembersoftheboardofmanagementandthushave therighttovote,theyremainaminoritywithoutanyreal influenceondecisions.Inthetripartiteboardofmanagement inwhichthemembersaswellasthedirectorofthefactoryare nominatedbythegovernment,theStaterepresentativesare thedecisiveelement.SincetheywerenominatedbyadeGaule government,theydonotrepresentworking-classorganiza- tions.Thisshowswhyitissoveryimportantforthosewho caryoutthepolicyofnationalizationstohavethegovern- mentintheirhands. TheGaulistsdefendedtheirpointofviewmostsuccessfuly duringthenationalizationsofthecoalminesintheNorthand thePasdeCalais.Theuniondelegatesremainedcompletely outsideoftheboardsofmanagement.Theyonlybecamemembersoftheconsultativecommittees,whereastheoldmanagers nearlyalwaysretainedtheirpositionsthoughtheynowdependedontheStateinsteadofonprivatecapital.Innocase weretheyreplacedbynewmen.Theyfurthermorekepttheir functionsintheboardsofmanagementofnon-nationalized largeenterprises.Here,fromthepointofviewoftheGaullists, managementwasindependablehands.(Theexpropriation measuresfurthermoreremainedincomplete,butthisisnotthe placetogointotoomuchdetail.) Inaccordancewiththeirincreasedimportanceinthe2nd deGaulegovernment,theworking-classpartiessucceededin wrestingmoreimportantconcessionsfromtheGaullistsduring thenationalizationofthebanks.It istruethatinthiscase alsotheformerpresidentsandgeneraldirectorsremainedin theirpostsandcontinuedtoparticipateinthemanagementof banksandothernon-nationalizedbigenterprises.Butacompleteexpropriationwasdecreedandtheuniondelegatesbe- camemembersoftheboardsofmanagementwithfullrights
NOVEMBER,1946 includingtherighttovote.Sincetheyformonlyafeeble minority(4among12),theycannoteffectivelyinfluence management.Theyneverthelessfulfilltheimportantroleof holdingadvancedpositionsfortheworking-classorganizations untilthedaywhentherepresentativesofthegovernmentin theboardshouldalsobecomethemandatariesofworkingclassorganizations. Atthedateofwriting(April,1946),itisnotyetpossible toforetellhowradicalwillbetheimpactofthenationaliza- tionscariedoutbytheGouingovernment.Inanycaseits measureswillbemoreradicalthanalltheprecedingones.But itshouldbenotedontheotherhandthattheGouingovernmentuptonowhasnotchangedanythingintheadministra- tionofpreviouslynationalizedenterprises.WhentheCommunistministerofindustrialproduction,MarcelPaul,at- temptedtointroduceintheNortherncoalminescertain changesfavorabletotheworking-classorganizations,calling inCommuniststoreplacecertaindeGauleappointees,the unitedattackoftheSPandtheMRPforcedtheCPtobeat theretreat.Ofcourse,itisnotadesiretoprotecttheinterests ofbigcapitalwhichmadetheSPopposeanincreasedpartici- pationofworking-classorganizationsinmanagement.It wishedonlytoavoidanyreinforcementoftheCommunists' position.Withoutanydoubt,therivalrybetweentheCPand theSPhashamperedtheactionoftheGouingovernmentand madeforthefactthatuntilthemiddleofAprilthenationalizationswerelimitedtogasandelectricityonly.Ontheother hand,bothpartiesdefinitelywantnationalizationstobecontinuedandthisiswhytheyvotedtogetheragainsttherepre- sentativesoftheotherpartiestoprolongtheparliamentarysessioninorderthatparliamentcoulddecidethenationalization ofinsurance,oftheremainingcoal•minesandoftheprivate banks.(Thequestionofthebanksintheendremainedin suspense). THEMASSESMUSTBEWONOVER Itisobviousthattheworking-classorganizationscanonly carryontheirpoliciesiftheydonotlosethesupportofthe mases.TheCP,theSPandtheCGT(GeneralConfederation ofLabor)becamepowerfulorganizationsinthemonthsafter liberation.ButthemassesfolowedtheCommunistandSo- cialistleadersonlybecausetheysawinthemthespokesmenof apolicywhich,aftersomuchmiseryandsuffering,would finalybringthegoodlifeandfreedomfromtheregimentation andcoercionthathadmarkedtheprecedingyears.There existedanunresolvablecontradictionbetweenwhatthemasses expectedandwhatthepoliciesofthepartiescouldofferthem. Fortheleadership,everythingdependedontheirabilitytoconcealthesecontradictions. Buthowcanthepartiessucceedinconvincingthemases thatthemeasuresdecideduponbythePlannedEconomywill eventualyservetheinterestsoftheworkerswhenthese measuresimposeevernewsacrificesuponthem;andthisin spiteoftheirincreasedeforts,inspiteofaperceptiblein- creaseineconomicactivity,andinspiteoftheliberationof thecountryfromaninvaderwhohadpreemptedaconsider- ablepartofthenationalproduct?Andhowcantheyconvince themassesthattheystilldefendworking-classinterests,al- thoughtheyrejectallstrikes,decreeafreezingofwages despitethecontinuedincreaseinprices,demandanextreme BibliotecaGinoBianco 343 accelerationoftherhythmofworkandopposethetraditional calss-strugglepolicies? AlreadyduringtheirundergroundperiodSocialistand Communistleadersrealizedthedifficultieswhichtheirpolicieswouldencounteramongthemasses,buthopedtosur- mountthembyutilizingthefactthattheirpolicieswouldbe directedagainstcapital.Wasn'tthereanoldtraditionalidea firmlyrootedinthemindsoftheworkersthatanyaction againstcapitalwould ipsofacto beoneintheinterestofthe workers?Thoughattheserviceofpolicieswhichareopposed tothedailyandhistoricalinterestsoftheworkers,thena- tionalizationsareameanstotiethemassestothepoliciesof thesepartiesunderthepretextofanti-capitalism.Theparties proclaimthatthenationalizationsare"transitionalmeasures whichwillalowsocietytomoveboldlytowardtheSocialist revolutionwiththehelpofaprogressiveregime." Theideaofnationalizationplaysaprimaryroleinthe propagandaforthe"BatleofProduction"andfortheelectoralcampaign.Benoit-Franchon,generalsecretaryofthe CGTanditsrealleader,toldstrikingminersinLenslast autumn:"Sincethecoalminesarenownationalizedandsince youworknolongerforthetrustsbutforthenation,itisnot onlyyourdutybutalsoyourowninterestnottotolerate strikesandtoincreaseproductionasmuchaspossible."Andin allhispre-electionspeechesthethenministeroffinanceAndré Philipexplainedtothemasses:"Themeasureswhichwehave takencertainlyarenotpopular,thetasksassignedtoyouare heavy,butyounolongerworkforthedynastyofmineownersandforthelordsofbankingandinsurancebutforyour- self,i.e.,forthewholenation."High-placedSocialistcivil sérvantsexpresseditmoresimplyandmorecynicalyduring a'smalmeetingwhichweattended:"Thenationalizations makemanythingsmuchmoreeasilyacceptable." THESOCIALTRANSFORMATION TheVichyversionofaPlannedEconomylefttheelements ofcapitalistsocietybourgeoisieandproletariat-untouched. ThenationalizationsoftheFourthRepublic,however,trans- formonesectionofthebourgeoisiefromindependentcapitalistsintorentiersandanotheronefromholdersofindependent managerialpositions.tostateemployees.Ontheotherhand, thatpartofthebureaucracyofthePlannedEconomywhich owesitsascendancetotheworking-classpartiesandtothe nationalizations(uniondelegatesinmanagingboards,Social- istandCommunistrepresentativesinthevariousplanningand controlboards,etc.)formsanewprivilegedlayerwithquite novelsocialfeaturesverydiferentfromthoseshownbythe Vichybureaucracy.Itdoesnothaveanyconnectionwith capitaleitherdirectlyorindirectlyandislinkedsolelytothe working-classparties.Itthereforehasquiteadifferentideol- ogy."Theparty"istothosementheinviolableauthorityand itspolicyissupremelaw.Theyformthatpartofsociety whichdisplaysgenuineenthusiasmforthenewpowerpolicy, forstructuralreformsandespecialyfornationalizations. Fromtheministertouniondelegatesinfactorycommitees, alreadilysubmittothepolicyofthepartiesandrapidlybe- comealienatedfromthemassoftheworkers.Theyenjoyconsiderableeconomicandsocialprivilegesanddemandfromthe workersastrictdisciplineandmaximumproduction"tothe limitofone'sstrength,"accordingtoCroizat,Communist unionleaderandministeroflaborintheGowngovernment.
344 polities Thusanewpossibilitypresentsitselfforthousandsandtens ofthousandsofworkersandlowermiddle-classelements: climbingthesocialladderthroughmereobediencetopolitical andunionleaders,whiletheworkingmassesremainexploited andoppressed.Thisinturnmakesforatendencytowardde- compositionanddisintegrationoftheworkingclass. Thesocialconditionofthisclassdoesnotremainunchanged either.Thecontrolledeconomyorientedtowardpowerpolitics doesnotknowofcrisesofoverproductionwithresultingun- employment,butonlyofthecrisisofeternalwant.Theneeds notonlyforrawmaterialsandindustrialinstalationsbutalso formanpowerareneversatisfied.Unemploymentdisappearsto makeplaceforoverworkandforcedwork.Furthermore: whereastheworkerisforthecapitalistanobjectofexploitationonly,heisforthemastersoftheneweconomybecause maximumeficiencyonthenationalplaneandnotprivate profitisthemotornameansofproductionthatmustbe treatedgently.Nurseryschoolsandaspecialserviceforthe protectionofmotherhoodaresetuptoalowwomentowork infactorieswhileservingthedemandsforincreaseofhuman material. Manisconsideredapartofamachinewhichissupposed toyieldmaximumeficiency.Thismakesforasocialsecurity policyonamuchlargerscalethanunderprivatecapitalism wheremanisarawmaterialabundantlyavailable.Thissociety ofthe"generalinterest"orientedtowardthebuildingofa powerpotential,whichdoesnotrecognizethedesireforluppniessofthemassesbutratherperpetuatestheirmisery,tends atthesametimetoassurethem,thoughataverylowlevel,a socialsecuritywhichdidnotexistinthecapitalisteconomy orientedtowardprofit.Yetitmustbewelunderstoodthat thissocietytakessuchmeasuresonlyinordertobeterdefend itsinterestsofpowerwhichexcludeforeverhappiness,liberty, culture,andmustinevitablyleadtowar. Thoughthissocialtransformationisasyetstillatitsvery beginning,itisalreadypossibletoformanideaonwhatit wilmeanfortheworkerinthefactory.Thereorganization ofmanagementthattookplaceduringthedaysofliberation attheBerlietplant,forinstance,wasnotbasedonanymass action.Andinthelaterperiodnotraceofdemocracywas permitedinthefactory.Theleadingpersonnel,includingthe uniondelegates,owetheirascendancetotheCPandthe unions.Theyareinnosensedelegatesoftheworkerssince theyareneitherelectednorcontroledbythem.Intheonly placewheretheworkerscanraisetheirvoice—inthegeneral assembeilsofthefactories—onediscussesonlysuchmatersas pricecalculations,animprovementofprofessionalknowledge, etc.Theworkershavenorighttotalkaboutwages.Theyare consultedonlyonthebestmeanstofurtherincreasetotalpro- ductionandindividualproductivity.Thefactorypaper Contact, editedbyStalinists,publishespicturesandnamesofthose who"winourvictoriesinthebattleofproduction,"i.e.,of thosewhoworkovertime,onholidays,etc.Thepaperisfull ofadmirationfortheStakhanovitemethodsofworkcompetition.Workerswhoaredeemedtobeinsuficientlyproductive areexposedanddenouncedas"saboteurs"and"fifthcolumnists."Theworkersareaskedtoeliminatethosewho"hamper therhythmofwork"orwho"simulatesickness,whichaccountsforalossofalmost4milionfrancsfortheenterprise." Thisfactory,ontheotherhand,hasnurseries,vegetablegarrdens.an.ddairyrfarmsloritsworkers,organizesthedistributionoftoysfortheworkers'children,etc.Thisissupposedto makeupforwagestoolowtoallowtheworkerstoeatorbe dresedproperly,andtoquiettheirrevoltagainsttheircondi- tionT sh . iskindofsociety,if itmatures,couldnotbeconsidered aprogressivestageontheroadtosocialismevenifcapitalism shouldbecompletelyliquidated.Itwouldonthecontrarybe anewobstaclesinceitwouldreplaceacapitalismalreadyim- potentanddyingbyasocietywhichitspoliceandterrorapparatusoncefullydeveloped—couldmaintainitselfforalong time. PERSPECTIVES PowerpoliticsandaPlannedEconomytoimplementthem areindissolublylinkedinpostwarFrance.Thecompleterealizationofthenationalizationprogramoftheworking-class partieswouldmakethesepartiesthemasterofthiseconomy, sinceitisdominatedbythosewhodisposeofthecreditma- chineryandthekeyindustries.Thenationalizationsrealizedso farareasyetincompletefromeverypointofviewandcan certainlynotyetgivepowertotheworking-classparties.As longastheirenemiesmaintainleadingpositionsinthena- tionalizedsectoraswelasintheeconomicandstateapparatus,itisstillpossibletointerrupttheevolutiontowardacon- troledeconomyofpowerdominatedbytheworking-classparties—andinthelastanalysisbytheCP—andtoreplaceit eitherbyarealmovementofsocialandeconomicliberation orbyaPlannedEconomyorientedtowardpowerunderthein- fluenceofpoliticalforceswhichwouldliquidatethedegeneratedworking-classpartiesaswelasal trulyrevolutionaryor- ganizations.Finalytherestil isthepossibilitythattherivalry ofthepartiesreducesFrancetoazoneofinfluenceofthe greatWesternpowers.Theonlysolutionwhichiscompletely excludedistherestorationoftheautonomouspowerofcapital. Renewaloftheworking-classmovementagainstbourgeois reaction,againstfascismandagainstalltheoldparties,based onanewunderstandingoftheobjectivedevelopment,or destructionofalsocialandindividuallibertiesforawholehistoricalepoch:thatisthealternativeatthisturningpointof thehistorynotonlyofFrancebutofEuropeandoftheworld. FORESIGHTINMEDIA,PA. It'sabouttimethatMediahadsomesortofwarmemorialfor its WorldWar IIveterans. . .Howaboutacombinedmeetingofallthe civic,service,veteranandbusinessorganizaticnsinthetowntomapout amemorialprogram?Dangerinpostponementisthatanotherwarmight beonusbeforethememorialfortheotheronehasbeendecidedand placeEd. ditorialintheMediaWeeklyComment,Sept. 5. FOOTNOTEONCYPRUS Mr.TurtonaskedtheColonialSecretaryhowmanyJewsareatpresent residentinCyprus;andwhatstepsheistakingtoencouragetheimmigrationofJewsintothiscolony. Mr.GeorgeHall:ThenumberofJewsnowresidinginCyprusis107. TheconditionsofCyprusoffernoopportunityforlarge-scaleimmigration ofanykind. —Proceedings,HouseofCommons,May15. NOJOKERS Theforeignpolicystatementwaspassedunanimously.Neitherpronor anti-Sovietblocsformedduringthediscussion. . .Therewerenojokers intheforeign-policyreportthecommiteepresented.Itwentdownthe lineforthekindofgenuinelyAmericanpolicydemandedbyHenry W—ala frcoem. areportontheChicagoconferenceoftheCIO-PAC;inThe NewRepublic,Oct.7.
NOVEMBER,1946 345 ConscientiousObjection IsBankrupt NAR,"saystheConscientiousObjector,"isun-Christian, IT inhumane,immoral,economicalyandpoliticalydestructive,bringssocialyobjectionableresults,etc. Theremustbenomorewar." Andsosaythevastmajorityoftheworld'speople—and theyhavebeensayingitatleastsincetheexperienceofWorld WarLWhichleavestheC.O.withonlyonedistinction. Whenwarcomesheresolutelyfoldshisarmswhilethemajoritysadlysetabouttoengageinitastheymaybeordered. Neitherresponseisaveryworthyone(thougheithermay benecessaryfortheindividual'sselfrespect)and neithercan preventoccurenceofwar. ItisatthispointthatIassertcon- scientiousobjectionisbankrupt,andtoatempttobuildupon anorganizationofC.O.'soruponthesignificantaspectof conscientiousobjection(therefusaltocooperateinwaging war)istoinvitefailure.Tellingpeoplewariswrongorter- ribleistobetritetoapainfulextreme.Totellthemnotto cooperatein it, istogivethemanimpossiblealternative. (Two-thirdsoftheJewsofEuropewereliquidatedbythe Germangovernment.Contemporaryhistoryshowsthatlit- eralymilionsofnon-cooperatorscanbedoneawaywith ifnecessary.) ItistothecreditofmostmenwhoareC.O.sthatthey realizethatmereresolutefoldingofarmswillneverprevent recurenceofwar.Thesemenhavepositiveprogramstoofer, butinofferingthemtheybreakfreeoftheterm"C.O."and becomesomethingelse:religionists,humanitarians,moralists, socialists,single-taxmen,co-opmen,educators,psychologists, philosophers,etc.Theynolongerhavethecommonagree- mentthatmakestheuseofageneraltermsuchas"CD." meaningful. Whythisbreakingapart;thislackofagreementonapro- gramtopreventtherecurenceofwar?Thedisagreement comesatafundamentalpoint.Assoonasthequestionis asked"Whatisthecauseofwar?"thereisdisagreement. Toadmittherearemanydiversecausesonlymeansthateach manpickswhatheconsidersthemostimportantcauseor causes.Therecannotbeagreementonaprogramwhenthere isnoagreementoncause. Thequestionmustbemet.Letusatemptananswerby asking:"Whatconditions must bepresentinorderforwar tooccur?(Usualywhenthecausesofwararediscussed, peoplediscusswhatconditions are present.)Thereseemsto bethreeprimaryconditionsnecessary, theeliminationofany oneofwhichwouldmakewar (warbeingastruggleimplementedbytheuseofarmedforcesbetweenindependently governedcommunities) impossible. Theyare:1.Peoplemust supportthewareffortoftheircommunity(thatis,atleast "goalong").2.Armedforcesmustbeobtainable.3.There mustbeatleasttwoindependentlygovernedcommunities. (Economicconditions,oftenthoughtabasiccause,area majorirritantbutnota"must"forwar.Warscanoccur thoughtheeconomicsituationbeideal.) 1.Peoplemustsupportthewareffortoftheircommunity. "IfeveryonewereaCD.therewouldbenowar."Thishas BibliotecaGinoBianco bentheideabackofmostpeaceeducationinthepast.The emphassihasbeentoshow:(a) thatwariswhattheC.O. saysitis(seeabove),(b)thatthepeopleontheotherside ofthefencearerealyverymuchlikeusandnotthebeasts theyweremadeouttobe,(e)thatthe"bigboys"(diplo- mats,munitionmakers,capitalists,etc.)startwar;thatthe averagemanhasmuchtoloseandnothingtogainbywar. Theseideaswereprevalentandwidelyacceptedbetweenwars yettheydidnotpreventanotherone.Why?(a)Horribleas waris,itsemstheonlyalternativetopeoplewhohavegoten intoanimpossiblesituation(suchaswhentheGermanarmies areontheborderandreadytostrikeorwhentheJapanese haveblownupthechiefnavalbase.)(b)Oncemaneuvered intoapositionoffighting,itdoesn'tseemsignificantwhat kindofpersontheopponent realy is.Youareonlyconcerned withthebehaviorheexhibitstowardyou,andthatbehavior ishostile.(c)Whenwarcomes,"Whostartedit?"seems secondaryto"Who'lfinishit?"("WhatiftheU.S.governmentdidprovoketheJapstoattack?Nothingtodonowbut se itthrough.")Despitetheirwordsofpeace,thepeople marchedwhentheorderwasgiven.Peaceeducationfailed whenpeopleweresuddenlyconfrontedwiththeimmediacy ofwar.Itwillfailagainwhentheyfindthemselvesinsuch asituation. Butcanweavoidcrisissituationsbygetingpeopletotake aninterestintheirstatedepartmentsandseethatitisrunin agreementwiththeirdesiresforpeace?AretheAmerican peopledoingthattoday?Havetheyeverdoneanythingapproachingit?AretheRussianpeopleinapositiontodomore? Suchhopesandsentimentalityinthepresentworldwilllead usdownaonewaystreettodisaster. 2.Armedforcesmustbeobtainable.Thishasbeenoneof thereasons"disarmament"andoutlawoftheatomic-bomb havebeenproposed."Disarmament"hasbeentriedandit failedtopreventwar.Why?Becauseitwasnotenforceable andnot total.Partial disarmament,if itwereenforceable (whichit isnotunderpresentconditions)mightgreatly diminishtheefectsofwar,butitcannotpreventit.Total disarmamentisimpossible.Aslongasarockoraclubis available,armedforcesareobtainable. 3.Theremustbeatleasttwoindependentlygoverned communities. If allpeopleweresomehowperfectlyadjusted psychologically,orsomehowwereallChrist-like,therewould benowar.Iftherewerenogunsorclubsorrocksavailable, therewouldbenowar(thoughwemightseesomevigorous wrestlingmatches).Butifpeoplearejusttypical1946folk withclubsandatom-bombsattheirdisposal,onlyonething semstoreasonablyguaranteethattherewillbenowar.That isthethingthatkeepsCaliforniaandArizona,Armeniaand Azerbajan,orNormandyandBrittany,atpeacewitheach other;acommonlaw,drawnupbyacommonlegislator,put inefectbyacommonexecutor,andappliedandjudgedby acommoncourt. Romeexperienced200yearswithoutwarbydestroyingall governmentsindependentofherthatwerewithinherreach. Shetrulyruledallherworld.Todayourreachisvastlyex- tendedsothatourworldof1946coverstheentireglobe. Destroyingalloppositiontobringabout PaxAmericana does notseemasfacetiousnowasitdidayearago.Itisapossibility(justasisaPax Russiana), though,sincewearelook- ingforawaythatavoidsfurtherwar,notoneopentous.
346 politics Toformsuchacommonlawwithaccompanyinginstitutions bymeansofafederationofpresentnation-statesisanother mater.Itistothisthatthoseconcernedwiththeprevention ofanotherwarshouldgiveatention. Isworldfederalgovernmentpossibleinthenextfewyears? Thatisaquestionwemustface,andonewemustanswer. Ifyourreplyisiuthenegative,don'tbothertoapologizefor yourcheerlessdiscovery;juststartlookingforagood,deep cave.TheU.S.Armyhasalreadybegunlookingforsome. DONELTON SMITH COMMONNONSENSE SOMEBODYfoolssomebody,that Iknew,it isalwaysa soundassumptiontomake,butwhofoolseverybody? Thathasalwaysbeenamysterytome.TheState?Andwho istheState?IfbyStatewemeanthosewhorunit,keepit goingor from going,asyouprefer,thenagain,wefindpeople whoponderpainfulyontheirliesallday,becausetheyknow thatthéymustfoolsomebody,that'stherule.Buttheyare victimstoo,theysufferfromitbeforetheymakeotherssufer. Ifyousay:Notthesepeopleassuch,butIT,theState,then Istilldon'tknowwhofoolseverybody,becausetheStatedoes notexistoutsideofthosepoordevilsthere.Supposewesaid oneday:ThismorningnobodywhoisnothimselftheState wilgotoanyoffice.Wel,thePresidentwouldcertainlynot go.Norwouldanyoneelse.Alloficeswouldremainempty. ThatwouldgiveyoubyexclusionthedefinitionoftheState: Nothing,Nobody,theFulVoid.Youmaythencomeback atmewiththeoldstorythatnooneinparticular,butthe unionofal ofthemistheState,andIshalsay:Whatunion? Simplyamultiplicityofthem?Tenbusfuls?Twentyoficefuls?WhatmakesthemtheState?Whatliftsthemfromthe scateredexistenceofnobodiestothesynthesisofState?Because,asindividuals,youmustgrantthattheyarethereal synthesisofnothingmultipliedbynothing.Thinkonlyofthe deception:Theyallwritebutarenotwriters.Theyallthink butarenotthinkers.TheyaldealwithDramatisPersonaebut arenotplaywrightsoractors.Theyareallspecialistsinyou (infact,youmaynotassertwhoyouareunlesstheytell you),andyettheyknownothingaboutyouanddon'tcare. Andtheyare all theState.Andwithallthistheystilldon't impressanybody.Theyarealafraid,weak,cowardly,andthey alterrorize.Sotheremustbesomethingthatconfersupon themanewsubstance,theremustbeachemicaltransforma- tion,achainreactionwhichunifiesthemallintothesubstance:State.Butwhereisit? SOMEtimeagoIwenttoseemypublisherandwasvery depressed:notonlyhadI failedtomakeanyprogressin myworkforhim,buttwostoriesofminehadbeenrejected thesameday.Tomakethingsworse,oneoftheeditorssaid tome"WewerejustreadingabookreviewbyLionelTrill- ingwhichcontainsafewstrongwordsagainstyou.""MayI seit?" Iasked,andhesaid:"Wel,thisdoesnotseemtabe thebestdaytoshowyouanythingofthekind,butasyou knowaboutitbynow,hereitis." IwasgiventheAutumnissueof"KenyonReview"and shownthefolowing:"Butiftheprogressiveliberalofourday, ortheradical,isinclinedtoseeaninterestinmoralsasasoft wayofdivertingouratentionfromtheburningquestionsof politics,itcanalsohappenthatthepersonwhobecomesaware ofthemoralrootofpoliticscanbeledtofeelthatpoliticsis ,methingbuttbcrorutiotionthroughorganization,ofmorality. bilbilorecabinoboarico Theresultofthiscanbe,atleasttiresome;certainlynothing couldbemorewearyingthanthebrightchildisheyeswith whichNiccoloTucciregardstheworldinDwightMacdonald's 'Politics.'IlikeagooddealaboutthenewlineofPolitics'and Ihopeitcontinues,butwheneverMr.Tucciopensthosewide eyesofhisuponaworldhenevermadeandneverwasmadeby andtelsusthatthosegrownmeninoficearemendacious, coruptandoficial,Ibegintolongforaportfolio." AsIreadtheselines, Iwasovercomebyadeepemotion. "Isitpossible?"Iaskedmyself;"no,thiscan'tbe;Imustnot falthevictimtosuchillusions."Butmyemotionwassoap- parent,thattheeditorasked:"Whathascomeoveryou?You lookhappy.""0yes"Isaid,"I am happy.Doyourealizethat thesearealmostthesamewordsthatoneCalliclesusedagainst Socratesinthedialogueknown asGorgias? Caliclessays "I feeltowardphilosophersasIdotowardthosewholispand imitatechildren. . .SowhenIseeamanplaylikeachild,his behaviourappearstomeridiculousandworthyofstripes.And Ihavethesamefeelingaboutstudentsofphilosophy."Hethen calsSocratesadefenselesschildandsays: "Whatisthesense ofanartwhichconvertsamanofsenseintoafool?"Thenhe says:"Learnthephilosophyofbusinessandacquirethereputationofwisdom. . .emulateonlythemanofsubstanceand honorwhoisweltodo." NowMr.Trilingdoesnotgiveany suchusefuladvicebecauseheisnotmyfriend,buttheaccu- sationisthesame.Andyet Iknowthat IamnotSocrates, andnotevenabeginnerinphilosophy:asamateroffact, I discoveredPlatoonlyafewmonthsago. Imustsolvethis riddle:please,letmeseethewholearticle." Afewmorewordsweresufficienttocuremeofeverydelusionofgrandeur:therewasjustthesamedistancebetween Socratesandmyself,asbetweenCalicle'scynicismandLionel Trilling'sinterestintheafairsoftheworld.Caliclesrealy andtrulydidnotcare;hebelievedthatthinkingwasperniciousandsaidsowithouttheslightestfeelingofshame,while Mr.Trillingwouldbeashamedtotalkthatway:hebelieves thatthinkingisimportantandevenspeaks,Iseehere,ofmoral problems. However,thiswasnotenoughtoclearmeofthecharges. "WhatcanIdo?"Ithought."CanIsaythatMr.Trillingremindsmeofmyfatherandthe'respectable'peopleofhisgen- eration,whousedtocalmeachildwheneverIquestionedthe wsidomofthoseinauthority?Thatwouldbeaninsult:those peopledreadedcriticism:Mr.Trilingisacriticbyprofession. Whatelsethen?CanI retortthatwhileIstarewithbright eyesataworldInevermadeandneverwasmadeby,hedid maketheworldandwasmadebyit?Thatwouldbeeven worse:imagine,Mr.Trilingandtheatomicbomb;Mr.Trillingandaltheliesbywhichwelive.. ."SoIdecidedthatthe onlyotherthingIcoulddowastopatientlyre-readallmy pastarticlesinPOLITICSandseewhereandhowfarIhadbeen suchababy. AndtomygreatsurpriseIfoundthathewasright.There wasnothingbutchildishastonishmentineveryoneofthem, andasI re-readthem(it ismydutytoconfessthistoo) I realizedthat Ihavenotgrownupatallduringtheseyears;if anything.Ihavebecomemoreofachild,asnowIamposesed bysuchdespairthat,insteadofprotesting,attimesIfeelmore likecryinginthefaceoftheworld,becauseIamfrightened andIdon'tknowWHOinthisimmenseruinarounduscan doanythingatall. "Now,"Isaid,"Imustacknowledgeal thisandthankMr. Trilingforopeningmyeyesonmyopeneyes."ButasIwas gettingreadytodothis,mynowdoublyopeneyesfellona phrasethathadescapedthemwhentheyhadjustbeenopen once.Rightaftersayingthatmywritingsmakehimlongfora portfolio,hesays(speakingoftheauthorwhosebookheis
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